Water Issues in California and the Relationship to Agriculture

Water Issues in California and the Relationship to Agriculture

Table of Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

History of Water in California………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4-5

                California’s Climate…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

                The Effects of Drought………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4-5

Agricultures Impact…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5-7

                California’s Agricultural Economy………………………………………………………………………………. 5-6

                Issues Associated with Agriculture……………………………………………………………………………... 6

                Personal Experience at the Zylstra Family Farm………………………………………………………….. 6-7

Water Rights and the Law of the River…………………………………………………………………………............ 8

History of Dams in California…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8-10

                Why so many Dams?....................................................................................................... 8-9

                Dams and their Issues………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9-10

Issues with Sharing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10-11

Issues with Inefficiency………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11-12

What needs to be Done…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12-13
                Improving Water Management and Efficiency………………………………………………………….. 12-13

                Pointing out Economic Benefits………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 14-16

References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16

Abstract

The great state of California is home to hundreds of celebrities, Hollywood, and the famous In-and-out burger, but most importantly the largest agricultural economy in all of the U.S. Every year the state earns billions of dollars in revenue from produce sales both domestically and internationally. These profits come at a cost though, in the semiarid environment of southern California and the Central Valley area, billions of gallons of water are used by farmers each year to keep their valuable crops healthy and hydrated. A combination of climate, poor management practices, and a rapidly growing population have created an insatiable demand for water that the state’s natural resources simply cannot supply. California has built immense reservoirs and extensive aqueduct systems to move water from hundreds of miles away to where it is needed and the environmental toll of California’s actions are remarkable. Rivers and streams that once ran throughout the state have gone dry because their source waters were closed off behind a dam to be used for irrigation, native fish populations have declines because they can no longer return to their spawning grounds due to the dams blocking their way. Immense quantities of groundwater are being contaminated by agricultural chemicals seeping into the ground from run-off, and international disputes have formed as a result of concerns over water rights. California’s history has long been shaped by its dependence on water and it is no truer than now. As California faces the longest drought in its history, with its water storage facilities hitting all-time lows and its natural ecosystems degrading each year, California must consider adopting better water management practices and improving efficiency if it hopes to recover and move toward a sustainable future.

History of water in California

-California’s Climate

California is one of the largest territories in North America and the most populated state in the United States. If laid over the east coast on a map, California would stretch from the southern tip of Maine into South Carolina. California’s extensive range is what provides it such variation in ecosystems that include dense rainforest to the north, riparian wetlands, coastal beaches, and dry deserts in the south. Every year in the spring, snow melt from the Sierra Nevada mountain range would make its way down the mountains passing through the valleys and provide abundant wetland habitat before dumping into the Pacific Ocean. With such a large state, precipitation rates vary by area allowing these different ecosystems to exist. In southern California the conditions are arid, characterized by winter rains and summer droughts. Carle (2009) stated that moist warm air moving inland from the ocean interacts with cool air coming down from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. This mixing of air masses is responsible for California’s varying climate. The areas in Southern California are some of the driest areas in the United States with annual rainfall rarely exceeding 15 inches, see Figure1.

-The effects of Drought

Over the past few decades California has experienced long periods of drought broken up by short periods of above average rainfall. Last year was the driest year in state history since the 1500s. The state was able to get through the year with some voluntary water use reductions by making use and relying on excess water stored over from previous years. Unfortunately the drought has continued into 2014 and is beginning to put pressure on California’s water infrastructure. Recently an article by Welch (2014) was published in the newspaper on the largest man-made reservoir in the nation stating that, “Lake Mead is just 39% full. The water level fell in July to its lowest level since 1937” (p. 2B). This past June I was fortunate enough to take a college course that had me tour the Northwest and Southwest parts of the United States, covering various environmental issues. I was able to see first-hand how many of these issues were affecting local citizens and the surrounding environment. During my visit to Nevada I was able to see Hoover Dam and Lake Mead for myself. The sheer size of the reservoir can only be understood after seeing it with one’s own eyes, and the same should be said for Hoover Dam. At the time, I was not aware of how far down the water level had dropped but one could tell the decline was considerable with reference to the bathtub ring of mineral salts surrounding the reservoir, evidence of the reservoirs previous water levels.

Agricultures Impact

-California’s Agricultural Economy

Agriculture in California is responsible for consuming nearly 80% of the states allocated water. Over the years as California developed and more water supplies were established, farmers began to change their seasonal produce. Rather than growing hardy vegetables that were natural to the climate, farmers began growing more profitable water-intensive crops and introducing a more varied crop rotation. More water also allowed for farmers to irrigate more land and thus allowing for higher crop yields which further increased profits. Over time southern California near Los Angeles and the central valley became the largest sites of agricultural production in the United States, Studies done by Tolomeo (2012) showed that “In 2011, California’s 81,500 farms generated a whopping $43.5 billion in revenue for their output” (p. 5). Just in case understanding the immensity of California’s agricultural presence is proving difficult, Tolomeo (2012) explains, “California’s Agricultural abundance includes more than 400 commodities. The state produces nearly half of U.S. grown fruits, nutts, and vegetables. Across the nation U.S. consumers regularly purchase several crops produced solely in California” (p. 5). Some of the most popular crops being avocados, almonds, and primary supplier for much of the United States produce and is the sole producer of almonds, dates, figs and pistachios. With so many people dependent on produce from this state, it is no wonder why water issues have been such a debated topic since the state was founded. Many of the crops grown in these areas would not be able to survive California’s naturally dry conditions, this means that the state has to import water from far away sources to keep crop production up.   

-Issues associated with Agriculture

To ensure productive crop yields farmers need to keep their crops constantly watered. Unfortunately much of this water gets wasted as many farmers still use flood irrigation as their watering method of choice. Flood irrigation, as its name suggests, involved flooding a plot of cropland usually starting at one end of the field with a higher gradient and using gravity to move the water down across through channels dug between the crops and finally pooling at the bottom or running off. With such a large economy in agriculture, California utilizes fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to keep profits high and ensure there is enough supply to meet demand. When farmers flood their fields, some of these chemicals will run-off contaminating local streams, groundwater sources, and other water sources downstream. The fertilizers introduce excess nitrates and phosphorus to these other water bodies and support algal growth. The herbicides and pesticides are toxic and can cause genetic mutations at the embryonic stage which can lead to the decline of wildlife species. In areas where water settles, these chemicals can also leach into the groundwater, contaminating an essential resource in California’s water network as data from a (2010) study by the NRDC shows, “Fifty percent of California’s population – some 16 million people – depends on groundwater for its drinking water supplies” (p. 1).  

-Personal experience at the Zylstra Family Farm

During my trip our group had the opportunity to spend the night at a commercial dairy farm owned by Mike Zylstra in Modesto, California. Having discussed California’s water issues and how it has affected agriculture in the state, I decided to find out first hand from a real farmer just how water issues have affected Mike’s operations. After listening to repeated lectures that states how much of California’s water gets wasted in agriculture, often being lost from evaporation and run-off, I was surprised to find out that Mike runs a closed-system farm. Mike accomplishes this by taking advantage of the plant and animal wastes produced on the farm. Mikes farm specializes in dairy cows and milk production and it is essential that Mike’s cows receive proper nutrition to ensure the cows milk is of the best quality. Mike feeds his cows a diet of corn, cotton seed, canola, distilled grain, and alfalfa. The corn that Mike feeds his cattle he grows on his farm himself. Each day the cattle pens are rinsed and rather than washing with clean water each time, Mike recycles this wash water up to four times before replacing it with fresh clean water. After the final wash the dirty water is drained into a storage pond. Mike uses this water, rich in nitrogen and other nutrients, to fertilize the corn crops which will later be used to feed the cattle.

The Zylstra farm should be a model for all other farms in the area to strive towards, a self-sustainable approach to farming can have a dramatic impact on the local ecosystems, water infrastructure, and local economy. By incorporating animal wastes into the cycle the farmers no longer need to rely on chemical fertilizers to enhance their soil, this means that less fertilizer will be available to run off into nearby streams or seep into the groundwater. With California’s agricultural communities using 80% of the state’s water imports, water recycling could see a steep decline in the water needs of the state. Perhaps the most important factor for the farmers, that these self-sustainable systems provide better revenue for the farms by reducing food and waste disposal costs. This would bolster many of the local economies and lead to a higher standard of living. If self-sustainable farms could be shown to be more profitable, perhaps more farmers would be willing to make the transition. 

-Water Rights and the Law of the River

                With such a strong agricultural economy and such a demand for water to keep crops healthy, California constructed irrigation networks to bring water from the Colorado River to where it is needed in the state. California is not the only state that relies on the water provided by the Colorado River, the river passes through 7 river basin states all of which have claims for water. To prevent disputes between the states, the Colorado River Compact was established in 1922, this compact was an agreement between the seven states that categorized the areas along the Colorado River and allotted 7.5maf of water per year to both the upper and lower basin states. (Adler, 2007, p. 20) Unfortunately, this compact only kept the states quiet for so long, as these basin states began to express that the water could not be shared equally through the states when some states need the water far more than others.

The lower basin states weighed that since they were developing faster they should receive more water, as Adler (2007) wrote, “Early water division and use in California especially in the rapidly growing agricultural mecca in the imperial valley, ensured that California would have Colorado River water rights senior to other basin states which were much slower to develop in population, economy, and water use” (p. 21).

                This ratification to the original compact greatly eased political tensions for a while as the lower basin was free to continue development and the upper basin would have water reserved for them until they began development.

History of Dams in California

-Why are there so many dams?

In its days of early development California issued numerous water infrastructure projects to help satisfy the states growing need for water. Dams and reservoirs were constructed to harness and regulate the seasonal floods of California’s rivers. These dams provided water storage, flood protection, recreation, jobs, and power from hydroelectric generation. Early in California’s development there was a surge in dam construction due to concerns over what the best use of California’s water. Adler (2007) references that, “this concern was brought up in president Theodore Roosevelt’s 1901 State of the Union address where he stated that “The western half of the U.S. would sustain a population greater than that of our whole country today if the waters that now run to waste were saved and used for irrigation” (p. 211) implying that the best use for this water was to serve the people, disregarding the fact that the environment has its own water needs. Now nearly all of California’s major rivers and streams are managed by at least one dam with the exception of a few still naturally free flowing rivers. For many years dams were seen as the best way to fight against drought, as Hansen (2014) explains, “In the long run, farmers would be better able to respond to drought risks with increased access to irrigation water sources” (p. 107). With many reservoirs hitting their all-time lowest water level to date, such as Lake Mead mentioned earlier, the evidence is piling up that current methods of water management in California are not good enough. While some water storage may be necessary it does not mean more water will be available, correlation does not imply causation, just because you get a bigger bucket does not mean you will end up with more water in it. These storage systems are unreliable as they depend on unpredictable precipitation rates which vary by year and location. This leaves the state simply hoping for enough precipitation to fill up their systems each year.

-The problem with Dams

The major issues with dams that are being discussed are currently centered on harmful effects to the environment, including reduced water quality, degradation of downstream ecosystems, and loss of fisheries.

Hansen (2014) supports this statement as he iterates, “When dams are put in place they alter the flow of the river they reside in along with the temperature downstream. Dams trap sediments, depriving beaches along the river and coast of sand. Without sediment deposits and periodic high flows, riparian vegetation is lost, spawning gravels are not maintained, and habitat diminishes for everything in the food chain supported by river ecosystems” (p. 135).

This sediment also gradually builds-up behind the dam, filling it in a little more each year and reducing its storage capacity.  Hansen (2014) points out that, “In addition the stabilization of natural flows can result in the elimination of native fish that need high levels of variation in natural flow rate and in the establishment of invasive fish species” (p. 107). This has been the case with California’s native Chinook Salmon and Steelhead trout, anadromous fish species that make their way back up the rivers they were born in so that they can spawn. These dams create impassable barriers for these fish and they are unable to get to their home streams, not only that but with the lack of sediment running downstream the nesting conditions no longer support these species that naturally lay their eggs in aerated gravel beds. These conditions coupled with invasive species competing for food and loss of fish fry due to predation, California has seen a massive decline in their native fisheries as seen in figure 3, including the state fish the Gold Trout. In fact, during our stay in the Channel Island I had a discussion with one of the biologists there about fish and she told me that the freshwater fisheries are so bad that there has not been one recorded sighting of a Golden Trout in the past three years. 

-Issues with sharing

On the political side of things, one debate that is becoming more frequent is in regards to the increasing salinity of the lower Colorado River. The Colorado River has so many dams along it that by the time water reaches Mexico is but a slow trickle compared to its once roaring flows as Adler (2007) reference, “An obvious loser is the environment along the lower river and the delta. Another is the people of Mexico, who receive about one-tenth of the water that used to flow across the border” (p. 211). Recent tests have shown that the salinity of the Colorado River has risen significantly in the past several years specifically along the southern portion of the river. There are several factors responsible for this increase in salinity, agricultural run-off, natural salts, and persistent droughts. Many of the upper and lower basin states rely on water from the Colorado River for irrigating their crops. Unfortunately water run-off from these agricultural sites has led to an accumulation of fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide salts in the Colorado River system. This accumulation increases as one moves down the river as there are more sources upriver contributing to this input. The concentration of natural salts also increases as one moves down the river as a result of drought.  When droughts occur, many small rivers and streams dry up, leaving behind these agricultural salts along with natural salts. When the area floods after a long dry period, the water rushes downstream, bringing with it these deposited salts and dumping them into the main river. These salt deposits have been occurring for thousands, so why these are natural salts having such a large impact now? The answer is decreased river flows. Adler (2007) explains, “The salinity in the Colorado increases gradually as it flows downstream, and the resulting harm affects both sides of the border” (p. 217) The amount of water flowing into the southern end of the Colorado is only a fraction of the water flowing at the top leaving less water available to dilute the salts and resulting in such higher saline conditions. This issue has sparked tension between the U.S. and Mexico because Mexico has its own water rights allotted in the Law of the River but the U.S. uses the water so much that by the time it reaches Mexico the quality of the water is so reduced that it must be treated at a desalinization plant, at the Mexican Governments expense, before it can be distributed.

-Issues with Efficiency

In a state wrought with water issues one would think that the average irrigation methods used by farmers would be replaced with more efficient methods such as drip irrigation or water recycling. Unfortunately at the moment, farmers have no real incentive to change to more efficient systems. During my stay in California I asked about water incentives and why there have been so few farmers adopting these practices when the technology is so easily available. What I found out was that it was a matter of legislature, that right now if a farmer were to change his watering system to something more efficient and reducing his annual water needs, the state would respectively reduce the amount of annual water allocated to that farmer for the next year. While many farmers would love to do their part in helping the California’s water issues by adopting more efficient practices, they feel like they are being punished for doing so by their water allotments being reduced. Perhaps if there was a banking system where the farmers could have unused water reserved for future years farmers would be more willing to make the investment into more efficient systems.

What needs to be done

-Improving water management and water conservation

What California needs to implement are more efficient water management practices, facilitate water recycling, update outdated water infrastructure, and provide incentive for farmers to adopt sustainable practices. In the 1990’s Los Angeles was in the midst of a crippling drought and was forced to rely on local water. To provide enough for the city, stringent water conservation programs were implemented, leaking distribution systems were repaired, and local water supplies were developed, focusing on groundwater management and water recycling. Davis (1998) tells that these changes allowed for the city to “make use of the same amount of water as it used fifteen years ago despite and almost 30% growth in population” (p. 4). The data from Los Angeles shows that there is extreme potential for these services and that more funds should be put towards updated current systems to help the state make the most use of the water it has, rather than funding projects that focus on bringing in more water. According to Gleick (n.d.), if improved efficiency and conservation efforts can be made and save just 10% of the water used in California’s agriculture, roughly 3maf of water would be saved and could be used for alternative needs or reintroduced into the environment. Figure 3 details the water use in different sectors of California and outlines the potential savings from conservation. There are excellent opportunities for water recycling and management on farms as I saw during my visit to the Zylstra farm, such as drip irrigation systems or using wastewater to fertilize fields.

-Pointing out the Economic Benefits

 Perhaps the best strategy to ensure these changes start happening is to point out the economic benefits of these methods, show people and farmers specifically how their revenue can increase due to lower water costs. Not every farmer is environmentally conscious, so efforts must be made to make these methods more economical as to attract individuals who would otherwise be stuck in the old ways. People like money and if we can make it so that these farmers will be helping themselves while indirectly helping the environment than we should see rapid progress in achieving sustainable water practices and improving California’s deteriorating environmental conditions. I believe Martha Davis accurately portrays the view many scientists and environmentalists currently have on the future of water in California. In her 1998 speech at the UCLA environmental symposium Davis (1998) states, “My hope is that CalFed will present a bold, new water strategy for California that is built upon a foundation of aggressive conservation and water recycling programs and that we will be given the time to reshape our water demand before new concrete is considered” (p. 2) By making California more reliant on local water sources that can be controlled, the state reduces its vulnerability that is present with the dependence on storage systems which can be adversely affected during droughts. This reliance will make water even more accessible to Californians that it was before, which will stimulate the state’s economy benefitting all of its citizens without sacrificing the environment in the process.

Appendix

Figure 1

This table shows the average annual rainfall at different geographic locations in California

                                                        

Figure 2

This table outlines Current water use and potential for water conservation in California

Figure 3

Graphs detailing the change in populations of Wild Chinook salmon and Steelhead trout over time.

References

Adler, R. W. (2007). Restoring Colorado River ecosystems a troubled sense of immensity. Washington: Island Press.

Carle, D. (2004). Introduction to water in California. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Davis, M. (1998, March 3). Stepping Outside the Box: A Short History of Water in Southern California. Stepping Outside the Box: A Short History of Water in Southern California. Retrieved July 28, 2014, from http://www.monolake.org/mlc/outsidebox

NRDC: California's Contaminated Groundwater - Executive Summary. (2010). NRDC: California's Contaminated Groundwater - Executive Summary. Retrieved July 31, 2014, from http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/ccg/execsum.asp

Tolomeo, V., & Krug, K. California Agricultural Statistics: 2011 Crop Year. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Retrieved July 28, 2014, from http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/California/Publications/California_Ag_Statistics/Reports/2011cas-all.pdf

Gleick, P. Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California. Pacific Institute. Retrieved July 29, 2014, from http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=waste+not%2C+want+not%3A+potential+for+urban+water+conservation+in+california&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C31&as_sdtp=

Welch, W. (2014, July 28). Parched: The West's water worries rise as Lake Mead falls.Asbury Park Press, pp. 1B-2B.

Hansen, Z., Lowe, S., & Xu, W. Long-Term impacts of major water storage facilities on agriculture and the natural environment: Evidence from Idaho (U.S.). Ecological Economics, 1, 106-118. Retrieved July 27, 2014, from